Decades of clinical and basic research have shown a clear relationship between early life experiences and future life events. Research suggests childhood trauma/adverse experiences as leading risk factors for the development of psychopathological disorders including major depression, anxiety, drug abuse, PTSD, etc. Recent studies of early maternal separation effects in rats demonstrate that variation in early maternal care during the neonatal period shape adult social behavior and stress responses in lower mammals. A major goal of these studies is to define times in development (sensitive periods) and strategies for intervening to prevent/reverse/ameliorate neurobiological and behavioral deficits resulting from subtle changes in neonatal maternal-pup interactions. Experiments proposed here are designed to address the following hypotheses: 1) subtle changes in length/timing of early maternal separation (or handling) leads to individual differences in the exhibition of stress and parental behaviors, 2) variations in maternal care resulting from differences in timing of handling (H) will be associated with individual differences in developing neural systems, and 3) the effects of early maternal separation, while long-term, can be effectively changed/altered later in life. [unreadable] [unreadable] [unreadable]